The comprehensive analysis uncovered that nearly half of all aggressive interactions within social primate groups occur between males and females. This high rate of intersexual conflict challenges older models that presumed males and females rarely competed directly due to differing resource priorities. "The observation that in most populations any given individual is more likely to be involved in a fight against another individual of the opposite rather than the same sex highlights that the battle of the sexes is common in other animals," said Dieter Lukas from the Max Planck Institute.
Findings show that in only 25 of 151 studied populations did males win more than 90 percent of conflicts with females, and females clearly dominated in 16 populations. The majority-around 70 percent-showed moderate or no significant sex bias in dominance, indicating a far more complex and variable pattern than traditionally assumed. "Recent research started to challenge the traditional views of male dominance being the default status, and our study now provides a more comprehensive exploration of variation in intersexual dominance relationships," explained Peter Kappeler of the German Primate Center.
The team tested five hypotheses to determine what factors support female-biased dominance. Their results show that females are more likely to dominate in species that are monogamous, have similar male-female body sizes, or live in arboreal environments. Additionally, when offspring are left in safe locations while mothers forage-reducing the risk of injury during conflicts-female dominance becomes more feasible. Strong female competition for resources in small or pair-living groups also contributes.
Male-biased dominance, by contrast, is most common among terrestrial species where males are physically larger, possess weapons, or control access to multiple mates. "Critically, while primate males gain power via physical force and coercion, female empowerment relies on alternative pathways, such as reproductive strategies to gain control over matings," noted Elise Huchard from the University of Montpellier.
The study challenges conventional narratives about the evolutionary basis of male dominance, suggesting that gender power dynamics are shaped by ecological and social contexts rather than fixed biological templates. Humans, the authors argue, share more traits with species where dominance is balanced or flexible, rather than with those displaying rigid male hierarchies. As a result, framing human patriarchy as a legacy of primate ancestry oversimplifies the evolutionary evidence.
Research Report:The evolution of male-female dominance relations in primate societies
Related Links
Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
All About Human Beings and How We Got To Be Here
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